The surveillance system - summary overview

Two EPCs (RAND, University of Ottawa) participated in the development of the surveillance system; a third EPC (ECRI) assisted in obtaining safety alerts). The RAND and Ottawa EPCs had independently developed methods to assess SRs for the need to update [7, 8]; a formal comparison of the two showed they produced similar results [9]. In developing and implementing the surveillance system, we operationalized a proposal made in our earlier CER surveillance report for what such a system would look like (see Figure 1). This article describes the surveillance assessment of 24 consecutive SRs conducted for the AHRQ Effective Health Care’s Comparative Effectiveness Review program [10–33].

The surveillance system was designed to conduct an assessment of a SR six months after its release and every six months thereafter until the assessment identified signals sufficient to classify it as ‘high priority’ for an update. Briefly, six months after release of a SR, we conduct abbreviated literature searches, using the strategy employed in the original SR, but limited to five general medicine journals and approximately five specialty journals specific to the topic of the SR and, with a few exceptions. Newly identified evidence relevant to the key questions and the original conclusions was abstracted, and pre-specified criteria were used to detect the presence of qualitative and/or quantitative signals for updating (EPC SRs are organized around a set of key questions, each of which might have multiple parts, resulting in the need for multiple conclusions) [7]. The method also incorporates expert opinion regarding the validity or currency of conclusions reached in the SR and government safety alerts relevant to the SR [8]. Based on a combination of the weight of the evidence, signals, and expert opinion, a determination was made regarding the need to update each conclusion for each key question, with the expectation that a change in conclusion may yield a change in clinical practice. That is, each key question (KQ)-specific conclusion within a SR was categorized as up-to-date, possibly out-of-date, probably out-of-date, or out-of-date [8]. Finally, based on: 1) the proportion of key questions whose conclusions were determined to require updating or the urgency to update a particular set of conclusions, and 2) the extent of outdatedness, a global assessment of priority status was assigned to updating the full report (high, medium, or low), and the results of the process were summarized in a brief report. SRs assigned a low or medium priority for updating were re-assessed six months later. Reports assigned a high priority for updating were not re-assessed. The decision to update or withdraw the report is made by AHRQ, who consider the availability of resources and other factors when making a final decision. Detailed methods of the surveillance process are presented as the following:

Abbreviated search, study selection, and data extraction

The ascertainment of updating signals relied on qualitative and/or quantitative criteria developed originally for the Ottawa method [7] and expert opinion as used in the RAND method [8]. For each SR, we conducted an abbreviated update search as described in previous publications [7, 9, 34]. We employed the strategies used in the original published SRs but limited the sources searched to five general medical journals (Annals of Internal Medicine, BMJ, JAMA, The Lancet, and New England Journal of Medicine) and approximately five topic-specific specialty journals (usually the journals that contributed the most evidence to the original report; (if a particular specialty journal was not catalogued in PubMed, we would search the more relevant database as well). These searches were conducted for a time period starting six months prior to the last date covered by the searches for the original SR (to minimize the number of relevant studies missed due to delayed publication) up to the present. We also assessed the eligibility of studies referenced by content experts (further detail on the experts in the following sections). After removing duplicates from identified records, one reviewer used the inclusion/exclusion criteria specified in the original SR to screen titles and abstracts and then full texts of potentially relevant records. For each included new study, one reviewer extracted relevant data on study characteristics (for example, design, sample size, follow-up duration), demographic factors for study participants (for example, age, sex, condition), treatment (for example, type, frequency, dose), outcome characteristics, and results into an evidence table.

Ascertainment of updating signals

We then assessed whether new evidence provided or contributed to a qualitative or quantitative signal. One example of a qualitative signal might include finding a newly published pivotal trial with results opposite to that of the original SR with respect to an efficacy outcome (for example, effective versus ineffective or vice versa) or a harm (for example, a newly identified risk of harm that outweighs the previously observed benefits). The original definition of a pivotal trial was one published in one of the top five general medical journals or a trial whose sample size was at least triple that of the largest trial in the original SR [7]. For this application we made some adaptations to account for key questions for which observational studies were the study design of choice; namely we did not require new large cohort studies to have at least three times the number of participants as existing large cohorts. Other examples of qualitative signals included a superior new treatment (for example, a new treatment significantly more effective than one assessed in the SR); or a new population subgroup (that is, the treatment assessed in the SR has subsequently been tested on a new population). In contrast, new evidence generates a quantitative signal if its incorporation into a SR’s original meta-analysis changes a statistically non-significant pooled estimate into a statistically significant one or vice versa[7].

Clinical content experts

We identified and contacted two sets of clinical experts: a) those who had worked on the SR in question (for example, the project lead, clinical lead, members of the technical expert panel, and peer reviewers) and b) other clinical experts in the clinical content area who had not worked on the SR in question (for example, local or external subject matter experts). For each SR, we created a matrix that included each of the original key questions and a summary of each conclusion in the original report. Respondents were asked to provide their opinions on whether or not each conclusion was still valid. They were also asked to provide reference citations for any new studies they were aware of that might invalidate or otherwise alter the conclusion(s) as well as studies that were pertinent to the topic but might not address a particular conclusion directly (for example, studies of newer treatments that may have rendered the original treatments out-of-date). The responding experts were offered a small honorarium; reminders were sent to experts who did not initially respond.

Safety alerts

We examined safety and adverse event alerts relevant to each SR. This information was collected from MedWatch, the US Food and Drug Administration’s Safety Information and Adverse Event reporting system; the UK’s Medicines and Health Care Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA); and Health Canada.

Determination of updating status for SRs

The information on updating signals, expert opinion, and safety alerts was collated, summarized, and tabulated. Taking into consideration the totality of evidence, we used a set of decision rules/guidance originally used in the pilot studies [8, 9] to characterize any given KQ-related conclusion(s) as up-to-date, possibly out-of-date, probably out-of-date, or out-of- date. Based on the totality of these characterizations, each SR was assigned to high, medium, or low updating priority groups. The decision to assign a high priority was not based strictly on the proportion of conclusions determined to be probably or definitely out-of-date, but rather, was a global judgment informed by a set of guidelines; for example, one out-of-date conclusion that could result in harm or inferior treatment could give rise to a high priority for updating. The criteria for determining updating status are provided in Additional file 1.

For each of the SRs that underwent surveillance, we summarized our findings in a brief report. These reports are now posted on the AHRQ website along with the original SRs to which they refer.

Assessment of the findings across SRs

To gain a sense of how long it takes for SRs to go out-of-date, we assessed the proportion of the SRs that went through the surveillance process at least once that received a high or medium priority for updating as a function of the length of time since their publication and from the date of their latest searches.

Sampling of SRs for assessment

Characteristics of SRs

The SRs varied widely in the kinds of interventions they tested and their target populations. Interventions included pharmaceuticals [11–14, 16, 17, 20–23, 28, 31, 33], surgical procedures [10, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28], radiotherapy [19, 22], non-pharmacological procedures [24, 28, 30], diagnostic and preventive interventions [27, 29], and a complementary and alternative medicine intervention [14]. The populations of interest included patients with cancer, tumors, and anomalies on screening [10, 11, 19, 22, 25], heart disease [18, 20], cystic fibrosis [12], autism [13], trauma [15, 16], cuff tears [21], lipid therapy[17], hypertension [24], renal diseases [26, 31], attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [33], psychiatric and behavioral conditions [32], depression [30], infection [29], pelvic pain [28], sleep apnea [27], and preterm labor [23].

The characteristics of the 24 SRs and the corresponding surveillance assessments are presented in Table 2. Briefly, the number of key questions (the questions that frame AHRQ SRs) across the 24 SRs ranged from three [10, 17, 26, 33] to seven [12, 13, 27], although each key question could comprise any number of subquestions. The total number of conclusions per report that required assessment, a reflection of the number of subquestions, ranged from 7 to 86 (the median number was 23). The median number of included studies in the original SRs was 104 (IQR: 71 to 124). The median number of newly identified studies deemed relevant for inclusion in the SRs was 15 (range: 0 to 35).

The number of experts initially contacted across the 24 SRs ranged from 4 [17] to 17 [30]. The response rates ranged from 20% (2/10) to 100% (6/6) with a median of 35%.

Most SRs were assigned a low priority for updating: two out of 24 SRs (8%) [17, 22] were assigned a ‘high’ priority for updating; five out of 24 (21%) [10, 11, 19, 26, 27] were assigned a medium priority, and the remaining 17 (71%) were assigned a low priority [12–16, 18, 20, 21, 23–25, 28–33] (see Table 3).

Ten SR topics underwent a second surveillance assessment. For those SRs, we contacted only those experts who had responded in the first round. Across these ten SRs, 39 experts were contacted, and 27 responded, with response rates ranging from 40% to 100%. Median response rate was 71%, double the 35% median response rates across all topics on the first round. Across these ten SRs that underwent a second surveillance assessment at about six months from the end of the prior assessment, there were 265 conclusions contained within 53 key questions. Of these, eight conclusions changed between the first and second surveillance: seven conclusions changed from ‘up-to-date’ to ‘possibly out-of-date’, and one conclusion changed from ‘possibly out-of-date’ to ‘probably out-of-date’. One of the ten SRs changed priority for updating from ‘low’ to ‘medium’.

Factors associated with priority decisions

We assessed whether the length of time that had elapsed between the search conducted for the original report and the update surveillance search (search time lapse, STL) was associated with priority status for updating. Seven SRs were released prior to January 2010 [10, 11, 17, 18, 20, 22, 26] (that is, more than 18 months before the start of the Surveillance Program); of these seven, two were the SRs judged as being ‘high’ priority for updating, three were judged as being ‘medium’ priority, and two were judged as being ‘low’ priority for updating. Of the remaining 17 SRs, released after January 2010, only two were judged as being ‘medium’ priority for updating and the rest were low priority. All SRs released within the year prior to the start of the Surveillance Program (between June 2010 and June 2011) were judged as being ‘low’ priority. Figure 2a and b present the updating priority decisions for the 24 SRs by the time elapsed since the search date in the original review (2a) and the number of new relevant articles identified during the surveillance process (2b). While more SRs were classified as medium or high priority for updating as both the STL and the number of new relevant articles increased, there was substantial overlap, and no threshold existed for either time or number of articles that could accurately predict classification of SRs into different categories.

The possible role of safety alerts

We identified applicable safety alerts for 9 of the 24 SRs assessed. FDA provided alerts for all nine of those SRs [12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 27, 28, 31],[33]; MHRA and Health Canada were the sources of alerts for only one SR [33]. None of the agents, devices, or procedures evaluated in the 24 SRs for which we performed the surveillance assessments had an FDA black box warning (the strongest FDA warning, indicating a significant risk of serious or even life-threatening adverse effect) issued during our assessment period. In only one case was the updating priority of a SR influenced by a safety alert [27].

Lessons learned

The implementation of the surveillance assessment program to determine the currency of published AHRQ SRs has presented a number of challenges. These challenges included differences across reports in the ways conclusions were presented, the responsiveness of report staff and experts, and delays in the release of the original reports themselves combined with differences in the length of time between release and surveillance.

Limitations

One limitation of the surveillance system is that it requires subjective global judgments. The assessment of currency and validity of conclusions for each key question in a SR was based on the totality of information compiled through multiple sources such as the qualitative/quantitative signals, expert opinion, and safety alerts. Although we used operational and standardized definitions throughout the process to promote consistency in the assessments, the overall judgment must necessarily be subjective in characterizing individual conclusions. However, since neither the STL nor the number of new relevant studies can classify SRs perfectly as low, medium, or high priority status for updating, this subjective human assessment is going to be needed in an efficient surveillance system. Future work should seek to make these judgments as reliable as possible across raters. The strength of evidence should be investigated in future work.

A second limitation is that we present data for only 34 surveillance assessments on 24 SRs. However, only two published evaluations have included more assessments than ours. A study by Shojania and colleagues assessed 100 systematic reviews to determine how quickly they go out-of-date, but this study limited its sample to meta-analyses that produced a summary estimate of outcome, and then further limited the analysis to only one outcome per study [7]. The DERP study reported the results of surveillance on 41 of their reports [6], but these reports assessed only drugs, and the decisions about updating were made by stakeholders for whom the approval of a new drug was highly relevant to policy decision-making. Our study, by contrast, assesses a broad array of health care interventions, and considered changes in evidence that might lead to changes in practice as the criterion for a signal for updating.

In sum, we found that only a small proportion of AHRQ-sponsored systematic reviews triggered signals for updating within one or two years of the date of their last search, and that neither the elapsed time since the original search nor the number of new articles could perfectly predict which SRs may be in need of updating. Our experience also provided some evidence into what might be the optimal time for a first assessment and subsequent surveillance assessments. Among the 24 SRs released within the first 18 months of surveillance, only two were classified as high priority, five were classified as medium, and the rest were classified as ‘low’ priority for updating (and a number of these reports had been released up to four years prior to the start of the surveillance). Furthermore, there were few changes in conclusions about updating in a second round of surveillance timed to start six months after the completion of the first round. These results suggest to us that a one-year time period between the release of a report and its first and subsequent surveillance assessments may be more efficient than the six-month time frame chosen for this application.