Table 2 Characteristics of included studies

Kodituwakku et al., 2012 [23]

(Buddhist Insight/Vipassana meditation—(a form of mindfulness meditation)

Case–control

(LTMs compared with matched controls)

RR

(LTMs vs. control at rest) and (during meditation vs. baseline)

23

13 LTMs

(4F, 9 M)

Age; 25–49 years

(average = 38.4 years)

Meditation experience; (average 8.7 years)

-

10 controls

(4F, 6 M) demographically matched

Age; 24–49 years

(average = 35.7 years)

With no previous yoga or meditation experience

Sukhsohale and Phatak, 2012 [26]

(Brahmakumaris Raja Yoga meditation)

Cross-sectional

(LTMs compared with STMs)

RR

(During meditation vs. baseline)

100 (33 M, 67 F)

73 LTMs

Age;

(mean ± SD = 53.05 ± 12.98 years)

Meditation experience; (mean ± SD = 11.19 ± 5.13 years)

27 STMs

Age; (mean ± SD = 49.37 ± 11.95 years)

Meditation experience; 6 months–5 years

-

Telles and Desiraju, 1993 [21]

(Brahmakumaris Raja Yoga meditation)

Single-subject

RR

(During meditation vs. baseline)

18

18 LTMs (All M)

Age;

20–52 years (mean ± SD = 34.1 ± 8.1 years)

Meditation experience; (mean ± SD = 10.1 ± 6.2 years)

-

-

Wallance and Benson, 1972 [6]

(Transcendental meditation)

Single-subject

RR (During meditation vs. baseline)

36

36 LTMs

(28 M, 8F)

Age: 17–41 years

Meditation experience; (mean > 3.5 years)

-

During each test subject served as his own control

(1st half-meditating, 2nd half – non-meditating)

Lazar et al., 2005 [22] (Buddhist Insight (Vipassana) meditation—a form of mindfulness meditation)

Case–control

(LTMs compared with matched controls)

RR

(Associations with meditation practice variables)

35

20 LTMs

(65% M)

Age;

(average = 38.2 years)

Meditation experience; (average ± SD = 9.1 ± 7.1 years) and practiced; (average ± SD = 6.2 ± 4.0 h per week)

-

15 controls; with no meditation or yoga experience

(67% M)

Age; (average = 36.8 years)

Matched with LTMs; by age, sex, race (all caucasians) and years of education (LTMs = 17.3 years and controls = 17.4 years)

Wielgosz et al., 2016 [27]

(Mindfulness meditation; open monitoring (OM), focused attention (FA), or loving kindness (LK) meditation)

Case–control

(LTMs compared with matched controls)

RR

(LTMs vs. control at rest)

69

31 LTMs;

(17 (55%) F)

Age; from 28 to 62 years (mean = 50.7 years)

Meditation experience; ≥ 3 years of formal experience in mindfulness meditation

-

38 controls

Age, sex matched meditation naive subjects; (26 (68%) F)

Age; 25–65 years

(mean = 47.9 years)

Karunarathne, Amarasiri and Fernando, 2023 [24]

(Budhhist meditation)

Cross-sectional comparative

(LTMs compared with matched controls)

RR, VC, TV, Spirometry parameters

(LTMs vs. control at rest)

40

20 LTMs;

(11 (55%) F)

Age; (mean ± SD = 45.75 ± 8.74 years)

Meditation experience; (mean ± SD = 12.8 ± 6.5 years)

20 controls

Age, sex-matched non-meditators;

(11 (55%) F)

Age; (mean ± SD = 45.25 ± 8.05 years)

Telles, Nagarathna and Nagendra, 1995 [25]

(“OM” meditation)

Single-subject

RR

(During meditation vs. baseline)

07

07 LTMs (all M)

Age: 29–55 years (mean ± SD = 42.3 ± 9.8 years)

Meditation experience: (5–20 years)

-

-

Vyas and Dikshit, 2002 [28]

(Brahmakumaris Raja Yoga meditation)

Cross-sectional

(LTMs & STMs compared with non-meditators)

VC, TV

105

35 LTMs

(18 M, 17F)

Age: (mean ± SD = 52.9 ± 12.4 years)

Meditation experience: > 5 years

35 STMs

(12 M, 23F)

Age: (mean ± SD = 46.6 ± 13.3 years)

Meditation experience: 6 months to 5 years

35 controls (12 M, 23F)

Age: (mean ± SD = 52.6 ± 12.2 years)