Table 3 Definitions of the prognostic factors
Prognostic factors | Definitions |
|---|---|
Biomarkers | Almost any measurement reflecting an interaction between a biological system and a potential hazard, which may be chemical, physical, or biological [59]: Serum protein level (S100b, S100A1b, NSE), genetic determinants (apolipoprotein E e4 allele), and brain structural changes (DTI, MRS, PET, task-based FMR, resting-state fMRI, CT, MRI). |
Sex | Refers to a set of biological attributes in humans and animals, usually categorized as female or male [60]. |
Multiple concussions | Number of concussions, frequency of concussions, or history of concussion [22, 49, 52]. |
Negative perceptions/expectations | Expectations of the potential negative impact of head injuries or negative head injury perceptions [2, 5]. |
Somatic complaints | Physical symptoms experience early post-injury, such as head pain, hearing problems, arm numbness, headache, low back pain, and mid-back pain [2, 48]. |
Litigation/financial compensation | Individuals seeking financial compensation, involved in litigation process, or lawyer involvement [2, 45]. |
Mental health (pre-injury) | History of psychological, mental, or psychiatric health problems before the trauma event [2]. |
Extracranial injuries | Concurrent injury during the trauma (measured by Abbreviated Injury Severity Scale) [17, 48]. |
Anxiety/depression | Baseline or early post-injury anxiety/depression measured with BAI/BDI or HADS [2, 5]. |
PTSD | Diagnosis of PTSD (measured by Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale and the Post-traumatic Stress Symptom Scale) [5]. |
LOC | Presence of LOC following the trauma (maximum duration included differs from < 15 or < 30 min) [2]. |
Nausea/vomiting | Nausea and vomiting on hospital admission [48]. |
Marital status | Single, engaged, separated, divorced, widowed, etc. [2]. |
Physical health (pre-injury) | Pre-existing physical limitations [19]. |
PTA | Presence of PTA or its duration (maximum < 24 h) [2]. |
Mechanism of injury | Referring to the cause of injury and the resulting physiological or structural damage: direct impact, sudden or rapid acceleration and deceleration (e.g., motor vehicle injury), penetrating injury, and blast injury [61]. |
ASD | DSM-V diagnosis criteria: exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, sexual violation, and presence of nine or more symptoms in any of the five categories of intrusion, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance, and arousal [62]. |
Baseline mental/physical health | Measured with SF-36, a short-form health survey yields an eight-scale profile of scores as well as physical and mental health summary measures [63]. |
Degree of trait of resilience | The term “trait of resilience” is defined by the two core concepts of personal adaptation and adversity and is an adaptive process, which may fluctuate and thus be modifiable [57]. |
Baseline noise sensitivity | Potential physical post-concussion symptoms [2]. |
Job independence/decision-making latitude at work | Student, homemaker, professional/semiprofessional, and management categories were defined as occupations offering more independence and opportunity for decision-making, when compared with the clerical, sales and service, manual labor, and skilled crafts and trades occupations [48]. |
Gross national product (GNP) of the country | Countries were classified using the World Bank Atlas as either high-income (GNP > $10,066) or middle-/low-income countries (GNP < $10,065) [2]. |
Pre-injury fatigue | Not described in the reviews. |
Being sober/intoxicated in ED | Being sober (versus intoxicated with alcohol) in the emergency department (ED) following mTBI [56]. |
Quality of sleep | Sleep disturbance assessed using subjective or objective measures < 2 weeks following concussion (baseline) (e.g., Insomnia Severity Index, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index) [51]. |
Prior neurological problems | Not described in the reviews |
Life stressors | Not described in the reviews |
Complicated mTBI | Mild complicated TBI defined as GCS 13–15 with focal brain lesion, depressed skull fracture, or both [19]. |
Sensory-motor test | Not described in the reviews |
Cognitive/neuropsychological tests | Not described in the reviews |