Table 2 Studies on the relationship between sport and mental health

1. Appelqvist-Schmidlechner, 2018 [41]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional (retroactive)

To examine whether retrospectively assessed sports participation (SP) and competitive sports (CS) at the age of 12 years is associated with mental health and health behavior in young adulthood among males

1. Structured sport participation at age 12

2. Not specified

No participation in sport at age 12

1. 680

2. 100% male

3. 26 years (4)

Mental well-being

Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (short version)

Mental distress

The Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) scale ('5 items')

Sports participation (SP) at 12 years is associated with better mental health in young adulthood-mental wellbeing and mental distress. This was also the case when controlling the impact of age, education, and present leisure-time physical activity. Higher level of intensity of SP and the level of competitive sport in childhood were associated with lower level of mental distress in adulthood

1. Ashdown-Franks, 2017 [42]

2. Quantitative—longitudinal

To examine the longitudinal associations between sport participation during high school and symptoms of panic disorder, GAD, social phobia, and agoraphobia in young adulthood (assessed 3 years after high school)

1. 18 different sports

2. Individual and team

Years of participation in 18 different sports (yes/no)

1. 781

2. 44.8% male

3. 20.34 (0.71)

Anxiety

(Panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, agoraphobia)

2003 Canadian Community Health Survey

The number of years of sport participation in high school was protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or GAD. Participation in either type of sport (individual or team) was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms

1. Brinkley, 2017 [34]

2. Quantitative-quasi-experimental non-randomized

To investigate the short-term effect of regular sports team participation on individual employee and organizational health, including VO2 max, and individual, social group and organizational health

1. Rounders netball, basketball, soccer, cricket, and handball

2. Team

Experimental:

12 × weekly lunchtime moderate-intensity team sport sessions in an indoor sports hall (10 min warm-up, 40 min of sport)

Control: normal work conditions

1. 48

2. 28 males: 20 females

3. Aged 24 to 64

Vitality

Subjective vitality scale

Quality of life

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Psychological stress

Perceived Stress Scale

Results indicate workplace team sport can improve interpersonal communication within teams, but no significant findings for subjective vitality, quality of life, stress, communication, or relationships (with colleagues or superiors)

1. Brunet, 2013 [43]

2. Longitudinal (prospective)–10 years + cross-sectional

The objectives of this study were to assess (1) the longitudinal associations of past moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and involvement in team sports during secondary school with depressive symptoms in early adulthood, and (2) the cross-sectional associations of current MVPA and involvement in team sports with depressive symptoms during young adulthood

1. Not specified

2. Team

-

1. 860

2.(53.2% female)

3. Mean age at baseline = 12.7, SD = 0.5; mean at survey 21 (end of study)-20.39 (sd = 0.39)

Depressive symptoms

The Major Depression Inventory (MDI)

Longitudinal results: There were no statistically significant associations between the MVPA slope in secondary school and depressive symptoms in young adulthood. In contrast, involvement in team sports was significantly and negatively related to depressive symptoms in the univariate model (P < .05)

Cross-sectional results: significant negative association between current physical activity (i.e., both MVPA and involvement in team sports) and depressive symptoms during young adulthood was observed in the unadjusted linear regression models, but the association between involvement in team sports and depressive symptoms was no longer significant in the adjusted model

1. Chinkov, 2015 [44]

2. Qualitative—interviews (semi-structured)

The purpose of this study was to explore the transfer of life skills among adults who participated in Brazilian jiu-jitsu

1. Brazilian jiu-jitsu

2. Individual

–

1. 14

2. (10/4)

3. Mean age = 34.6 (range 19 to 54)

Self-confidence

Individual semi-structured interviews

Twelve of the participants reported that their involvement in Brazilian jiu-jitsu improved their self-confidence outside of the gym. Participants reported improved self-confidence in interactions with others, in being more assertive, and in their ability to defend themselves

1. Ciaccioni, 2019 [45]

2. Quantitative-experimental (non-randomized)

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 4-month judo training (1 h session, biweekly) on physical and mental health of older adults

1. Judo

2. Individual

Experimental: 2 × 60 min sessions weekly for 4 months

Control: did not receive any training

1. 30

2. (17/13)

3. Mean age = 69.7 (sd = 4.2 years)

Mental Health (includes vitality, social functioning, role-emotional, and mental health)

sf12 (v2)

Body dissatisfaction

Body Image Dimensional Assessment

No significant change in mental health

Contrary to what was expected, the 4-month judo program did not affect the body image, or mental health of novice practitioners

1. Dore, 2016 [46]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

This study examined the cross-sectional associations among PA volume and context, mental health, and symptoms of anxiety and depression in post-secondary students

1. Team sports

2. Team

Team sports vs. informal group PA vs. individual PA

1. 1446

2. (602/844)

3. Mean age = 18.4 (sd = 2.4)

Mental health

The MHC-SF French-Canadian version

(Emotional and social wellbeing)

Anxiety and depressive symptoms

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)

The findings indicate that total physical activity volume, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity are positively associated with mental health. Only moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (not total physical activity) was inversely associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression

Considering physical activity context, when adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, only participation in team sports (not individual or informal group physical activity) was significantly associated with better mental health

1. Dore, 2018 [35]

2. Quantitative-longitudinal (6 months) cross-sectional

This study examined the associations between the context in which physical activity (PA) is undertaken (team sports, informal group, individual PA), and positive mental health, anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. It also investigated whether social connectedness or PA volume mediate these associations

1. Team sports

2. Team

Team sports compared to informal group PA (yoga, running groups etc.) and to individual PA

1. 430

2. 35.5% male

3. Mean age = 18.5 (SD = 2.6)

Mental health

Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF)

Anxiety and depressive symptoms

Hospital Anxiety and Depressive Scale (HADS-A)

Relative to participating in individual physical activity, being involved in either team sports or informal group physical activity was longitudinally associated with better mental health and fewer depressive symptoms

Further, team sports were shown to be associated with positive mental health regardless of physical activity volume, suggesting that other qualities of the team sport context contribute to this effect

1. Eime, 2014 [47]

2. Quantitative—cross-sectional

To examine the dose–response relationship between physical activity and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and life satisfaction. Further, to explore whether these relationships depend on type of physical activity (PA)

1. Membership of a sports club (predominantly tennis and netball)

2. Team

Sports club membership (netball or tennis) vs gymnasium, vs no PA

1. 793

2. All female

3. Mean ages:

club (n = 499) = 33.9 (SD = 13.7); gym (n = 185) = 38.5 (SD = 12.9) = walk (n = 109) = 44.5 (SD = 13.2)

Mental health

36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36)—Mental Component Summary (MCS)

Life satisfaction

Life Satisfaction Score—from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health

Compared to people not engaged in sport, sports participants (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction

The results showed that there was no dose–response relationship between the level of physical activity (i.e., the amount) and either mental health or life satisfaction, suggesting that factors other than physical activity are responsible for the relationship

1. Gerber, 2014 [48]

2. Quantitative—cross-sectional

To examine the relationship between exercise type and the stress and depressive symptoms of university students

1. Ball sports (e.g., basketball, floorball, netball, soccer, tennis, volleyball, badminton, ice-hockey and ultimate frisbee)

2. Team

Ball sports vs. aerobic activity vs. weightlifting vs. dancing

1. 451

2. 171 males, 280 females

3. mean age = 22.3 (sd = 2.2)

Stress

Perceived Stress Scale (German version)

Depressive symptoms

The Depression Scale

Among students with high stress (but not low stress), participation in ball sports or dancing was associated with fewer depressive symptoms. Students engaging in weightlifting reported fewer depressive symptoms, but only if they reported having low levels of stress. Aerobic exercise had no moderating effects

1. Hornstrup, 2018 [49]

2. Quantitative-RCT

This study evaluated the effects of regular participation in small-sided team handball training on body composition, osteogenic response, physical performance, and cardiovascular risk factors, as well as well-being and motivation, in young untrained women

1. Handball

2. Team

Experimental: 2 × 70 min sessions of team-based handball per week, for 12 weeks

Control: no exercise control

1. 28

2. All women

3. Mean age: Intervention (n = 14): 23.9 (sd = 2.4)

Control (n = 14): 24.1 (sd = 3.2)

Anxiety

Well-being questionnaire (Danish version)

Positive well-being

Well-being questionnaire (Danish version)

Mental energy

Well-being questionnaire (Danish version)

There was no effect of the intervention on measures of anxiety or well-being. There was, however, a significant effect of the intervention on mental energy

1. Howie, 2016 [50]

2. Longitudinal (from age 5 to age 20)

The purpose of this study was to identify organized sport trajectories from early childhood to late adolescence. Second the authors explored the associations of these trajectories with physical and mental health outcomes in young adulthood

1. Organized sport

2. Team and/or individual

Sports participation vs no sports participation vs. sports dropouts vs. sports joiners

1. 1679

2. 855/824

3. Age at baseline = 5, age at final assessment = 20

Mental wellbeing

Short Form 12-Item Health Survey version 2

Depression

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21)

Anxiety

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21)

Stress

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21)

Upon examination of the multiple sports participation trajectories, despite differences in physical health outcomes, there were minimal differences in mental health outcomes in adulthood. Of note, males who dropped out of sport in childhood or adolescence had higher depressive symptoms in adulthood

1. Janssen, 2012 [51]

2. Quantitative-experimental (non-randomized)

The present study investigated the influence of physical exercise, cognitive, or Karate training on the cognitive functioning and mental state of older people

1. Karate-Do

2. Group

Each experimental condition involved 20 × 60-min sessions held over 3–6 months

Experimental

(exercise): strength, and flexibility exercises

Experimental

(cognitive): problem solving activities

Experimental

(Karate-Do): Karate-Do training

Control: Received no training

1. 45

2. 15/30

3. Mean age = 78.8 (sd = 7.0)

Depressive symptoms

Centre of Epidemiological Studies Depressions Scale

Emotional mental state

Center of Epidemiological Studies Depressions Scale

There was an improvement in emotional well-being only in the Karate group

This study also showed that the depression score of the control group increased whereas the scores remained the same in the cognitive and exercise groups and decreased in the Karate group

1. Janssen, 2017 [52]

2. Quantitative-RCT (3 groups)

This study investigated the effects of karate versus a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention on well-being and cognitive functioning in older adults

1. Karate-Do

2. Group

The experimental groups engaged in 2 × 60-min sessions per week for 8 weeks

Experimental (MBSR): included sitting and walking meditation

Experimental (Karate-Do): karate-Do training

Control: received no training

1. 55

2. 21/33

3. Mean age = 63.5 (sd = 5.7)

n = 25 in karate group, MBSR = 19, control = 22

Subjective well-being

Multidimensional Mood Questionnaire (MDBF)

Anxiety

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Anxiety (HADS-A)

Depression

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Anxiety (HADS-A)

Optimism and pessimism

The Life Orientation Test–Revised (LOT-R)

Subjective mental health

The 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-12-mental)

Perceived stress

Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress

Participants in the karate condition had significantly greater improvements in subjective mental health and anxiety in comparison to the control and MBSR groups. There were no significant group by time effects for subjective well-being, depression, optimism, pessimism, or perceived stress

1. Jewett, 2014 [53]

2. Quantitative-longitudinal (5 years)

This longitudinal study examined the association between participation in school sport during adolescence and mental health in early adulthood

1. School sport (e.g., basketball, soccer, softball, etc.)

2. Team and individual

Number of years in school sport

1. 853

2. 462 females

3. mean age = 20.39 (sd = .75)

Depressive symptoms

Major Depression Inventory (MDI)

Perceived stress

Single item, assessed on 1–5 scale

Mental health

Single item, assessed on 1–5 scale

Participation in school sport during adolescence was significantly associated with lower perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and high self-reported mental health in young adulthood

1. Kitchen, 2016 [54]

2.Cross-sectional

The principal objective of this paper is to assess whether participation in ice hockey is associated with an additive health benefit

1. Ice Hockey

2. Team

Stratified by: 'did not play', 'played less than once per week', 'played at least once per week' (regular) vs. 'did not play in the last 3 months'

1. 8250 (for mental health)

8230 (for perceived life stress)

2. –

3. Aged 35 and over

Perceived life stress

Single item taken from 'The Community Health Survey (2011/2012)

Mental health

Single item taken from 'The Community Health Survey (2011/2012)

The results indicate there is no association between playing ice hockey and perceived life stress, nor between ice hockey and self-rated mental health

1. Kim, 2019 [55]

2 Quantitative-ecological momentary assessment (9 weeks)

To better understand the relations between sport consumption (i.e., sport participation, sport spectating, and sport media viewing) and long- and short-term subjective well-being, a study was conducted using ecological momentary assessment and multilevel structural equation modelling

1. Sport participation

2. Not specified

Examination of the short and long-term effects of sports participation

1. 242

2. 49.6% male

3. Mean age = 20.7 (no SE or SD reported) ranging from 18 to 37

Positive affect

Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)

Negative affect

Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)

Life satisfaction

Satisfaction with Life Scale

Engagement in sport participation led to perceptions of short-term improvement of positive affect and life satisfaction. There was also evidence that regular sport participation contributes to long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction. There was no significant interaction between sports participation and negative affect

Importantly, there was evidence that the short-term effects of sports participation may contribute to long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction

1. Koolhaas, 2018 [56]

2. Cross-sectional

This study assessed the association of total physical activity, walking, cycling, domestic work, sports, and gardening with HRQL in middle-aged and elderly adults

1. Sport (mode not specified)

2. Not specified

Associations between level of participation in sport (low, moderate, high) and MH outcome. Associations calculated separately for 65 and under, and over 65

1. 5554

2. 2356/3198

3. Mean age = 69

Health-related quality of life (mood subscale)

Dutch version of the EuroQoL (home interview)

Sports participation was associated with better mood in middle-aged adults and was the physical activity with the most associations domains of (HRQoL) in this age group

1. Marlier, 2015 [36]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

The present study aims to uncover how sport participation, physical activity, social capital, and mental health are interrelated by examining these outcomes in one model

1. Sport participation-organized and non-organized

2. Team and individual

Examined how sport participation, total physical activity, social capital, and mental health are interrelated

1. 414

2. 189/225

3. Age range: 18 to 56

Mental health (well-being, more specifically)

Goldberg’s General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) (self-report)

There was a direct association between sports participation, but not total physical activity, and mental well-being

1. McGraw, 2018 [37]

2. Qualitative-telephone interviews

This qualitative study examined how NFL players and their family members characterized the impact of an NFL career on the mental and emotional health of NFL players

1. NFL (American football)

2. Team

Includes both current and former NFL players, and family members of these players

1. 25 players (23 former and 2 current), 27 family members

2. All male

3. Age not mentioned

Mental health (inclusive of depression, anxiety, loneliness /isolation, and stress)

Thematic analysis (interview)

Most of the players and their families reported that the NFL provided emotional benefits as well as improvements to players’ self-esteem. Almost all the players experienced one or more mental health challenge during their career (e.g., depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling temper)

1. Patterson, 2017 [57]

2. Quantitative-RCT

The purpose of the study was to examine the health effects of 8 weeks of recreational badminton in untrained women

1. Badminton

2. Team and individual

Experimental (Badminton): 3 1-h sessions per week for 8 weeks. One session per week dedicated to learning skills, with the other 2 dedicated to matches

Experimental (Running):

3 × 1-h sessions per week for 8 weeks. Sessions involved running around a university at approximately 75% max heart rate

Control: No exercise control

1. 33

2. All female

3. Mean age = 34.3 (sd = 6.9 years) (range 19–45 years)

Physical self-esteem

Physical self-perception profile (PSPP)

Group by time analyses show a significant improvement in the badminton and running groups’ perception of their physical condition. There were no significant group by time interaction effects for sport competence, body attractiveness, strength competence and physical self-worth

1. Purcell, 2020 [39]

2. Quantitative cross-sectional

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and correlates of mental health symptoms in a representative, national sample of elite athletes and to compare rates against published community norms

1. Elite athletes (no singular sport)

2. Not specified

Community rates of psychological variables; 'published community norms'

1. 749

2. 344/405

3.mean age = 24.6 (sd = 6.9)

Mental health symptoms

28-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28)

Psychological distress

Kessler 10 (K-10)

Self-esteem

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Maladaptive response to psychological distress (anger and aggression)

2 subscales from the Male Depression Risk Scale (MDRS)

Body weight and shape

Dissatisfaction

weight and shape subscales from the Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire

Satisfaction with life

Satisfaction with Life Scale

In the month prior to the survey, approximately 1 in 3 athletes reported mental health symptoms at a level typically requiring treatment by a health professional—a rate significantly higher than community norms. Athletes also reported significantly higher psychological distress than community norms. However, athletes reported greater life satisfaction, self-esteem, and body satisfaction than community norms

1. Sabiston, 2016 [58]

2.Quantitative-longitudinal (5 years)

The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal and unique association between number of years of team sport and individual sport participation during adolescence and depressive symptoms during early adulthood

1. Basketball, soccer, football, swimming, baseball, volleyball, hockey, ballet/dance, aerobics classes, ski lessons, and judo/karate

2. Individual and team

Number of years participating in sport; participation in team vs. individual sport

1. 860

2. 54% female

3. Mean age = 20.4 (sd = 0.7) at endpoint

Depressive symptoms

Major Depression Inventory (MDI)

The findings of this study indicate adolescents who consistently participated in team sports during secondary school had lower depression scores in early adulthood. Conversely, the number of years of individual sport participation was not related to depressive symptoms in early adulthood

1. Sorenson, 2014 [59]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

To assess health-related quality-of-life (HRQL) among current and former National Collegiate Athletic Association student–athletes (SAs)

1. Baseball, basketball, cross-country, American football, golf, rowing, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo

2. Individual and team

Student athletes (SA) vs. nonathletes (NA)

1. 496

2. 280/215

3. Range = 17–84

Mental health

SF-12 mental component score

Current SAs had significantly better mental health than non-athletes. The alumni sample reported better mental health than current students, with age differences significantly greater for NAs

1. Stenner, 2019 [60]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

To investigate associations between markers of health and playing golf in an Australian population

1. Golf

2. Not specified

Golfers vs. non-golfers

1. n = 9307

2. –

3. Mean age = 48.7 (sd = 17.6)

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL)

Question one of the 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12)

Golfers were more physically active and

had 83% higher odds of reporting high HRQoL compared to non-golfers. HRQoL was no longer significantly different between the groups after controlling for physical activity

1. Thorpe, 2014 [40]

2. Qualitative-semi-structured interviews

The aim of the present study was to understand the impact of an Aboriginal community sporting team and its environment on the social, emotional, and physical wellbeing of young Aboriginal men, and to identify barriers and motivators for participation

1. Australian Rules Football

2. Team

–

1. 14

2. All men

3. –

Mental well-being

Interviews and group discussion

The players noted that participation gave them a sense of purpose, enjoyment, stress relief, and improvements in self-esteem. They further noted that racism, community conflicts, peer-pressure, and commitment were challenges of playing in the team

1. Tsuji, 2020 [61]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

The aim of this study was to identify the prevalence of specific types of sports and exercise groups and the association with self-rated health, depressive symptoms, and frequency of laughter among community-dwelling older people

1. Walking, running, and jogging, fitness exercises, weight exercises, hiking, golf, gateball, dance, yoga, aerobics, petanque, Tai Chi, swimming, aquatics, table tennis, bowling, cycling, tennis, and other

2. Individual and team

Odds ratios of associations between each specific activity and indices of health

1. 131,962

2. 63,465/68497

3. Aged 65 and older

Self-rated health

1-item

“How do you feel about your current health status: very good, good, somewhat poor, or poor?”

Depressive symptoms

15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS)-GDS

Frequency of laughter

1-item “how often do you laugh aloud in your daily life: almost every day, 1 to 5 times a week, one to 3 × per month, or almost none?”

Playing golf in a group was related to better self-rated health, less experience of depressive symptoms, and a higher frequency of laughter compared to not playing golf in a group

Walking in a group was related to better self-rated health for females, and to less experience of depressive symptoms and a higher frequency of laughter in males and females

Walking in a group was also related to a greater likelihood of reporting excellent self-rated health for females, and to more laughter and lower depressive symptoms in both males and females

1. Yamakita, 2015 [62]

2. Quantitative-cross-sectional

The purpose of this study was to identify the demographic and biological, psychosocial, behavioral, social, and cultural, and environmental correlates of sports group participation among Japanese older adults

1. Sports group or club

2. Not specified

Regular participation vs. non-regular participation

1. 78,002

2. 37,772/40230

3. Mean age = 73.5 (sd = 6.1)

Depression

Short version of the Geriatric Depression Scale–15

Irregular or no participation in sports was associated with mild to severe depression