Table 4 Hyponatremia and falls: strength of association according to Bradford Hill’s criteria

Renneboog et al. (2006) [9]

67.43 (7.48–607.42)

0.001

Hoorn et al. (2011) [4]

1.35 (1.03–1.75)

0.029

Gosch et al. (2012) [13]

29.3 (10.90–78.78)

 < 0.001

Ahamed et al. (2014) [28]

3.12 (1.84–5.30)

 < 0.001

Ganguli et al. (2015) [29]

Not reported

0.0471 (initial hyponatremia)

0.0171 (persistent hyponatremia)

Rittenhouse et al. (2015) [30]

1.81 (1.26–2.60)

0.001

Tachi et al. (2015) [31]

1.751 (1.020–3.005)

 < 0.25

Harianto et al. (2017) [32]

Not reported

0.005

Kuo et al. (2017) [33]

2.5 (2.50–3.02)

 < 0.001

Hosseini et al. (2018) [34]

1.13 (0.73–1.74)

0.56

Boyer et al. (2019) [35]

3.02 (1.84–4.96)

 < 0.001