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Table 5 Hyponatremia and osteoporosis and fractures: strength of association according to Bradford Hill’s criteria

From: Hyponatremia and aging-related diseases: key player or innocent bystander? A systematic review

Study

Risk (95% CI)

p-value

Gankam Kengne et al. (2008) [10]

OR 4.16 (2.24–7.71)

 < 0.001

Sandhu et al. (2009) [36]

Not reported

0.01

Kinsella et al. (2010) [19]

OR 2.25 (1.24–4.09)

0.01

Chow et al. (2011) [37]

OR 1.44 (0.77–2.71)

0.26

Hoorn et al. (2011) [4]

HR 1.34 (1.08–1.68)

0.009

Tolouian et al. (2012) [38]

OR 4.80 (1.06–21.67)

0.04

Arampatzis et al. (2013) [39]

OR 1.46 (1.05–2.04)

0.03

Hagino et al. (2013) [40]

Not reported

0.398

Afshinnia et al. (2015) [41]

Not reported

 ≤ 0.015

Ganguli et al. (2015) [29]

Not reported

0.5513 (initial hyponatremia)

0.1246 (persistent hyponatremia)

Holm et al. (2015) [42]

HR 1.996 (1.096–3.529)

0.022

Jamal et al. (2015) [43]

HR 1.67 (1.02–2.69)

Not reported

Kruse et al. (2015) [20]

OR 1.516 (0.971–2.37)

0.067

Usala et al. (2015) [44]

Not reported

Not reported

Ayus et al. (2016) [45]

Not reported

Not reported

Hosseini et al. (2018) [34]

OR 0.96 (0.71–1.31)

0.83

Adams et al. (2019) [46]

RR 1.11 (1.09–1.13)

Not reported

Nigwekar et al. (2019) [47]

OR 1.08 (0.89–1.30) in single episode hyponatremia, OR 2.65 (2.18–3.22) in chronic prolonged hyponatremia

Not reported

Schiara et al. (2020) [21]

OR 2.56 (2.08–3.13) in hyponatremic respect to OA controls, OR 0.92 (0.83–1.02) in hyponatremic respect to AMI controls

Not reported

  1. OR odds ratio, RR relative risk, HR hazard ratio, OA osteoarthrosis, AMI acute myocardial infarction