Table 1 Overview of substantive theories

Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory

Rooted in the intellectual traditions of social psychology, philosophy and cognitive psychology, Kolb saw learning as the process, whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Kolb’s theory of experiential learning proposes that people learn best when they are engaged in first-hand experiences which can then be reflected on to inform future practice. Reflection, a key instrument in experiential learning, was identified by Kolb as one of the mechanisms through which experience could be transformed into knowledge, skills and attitudes. Experiential learning theory encourages educators to create learning experiences which are sequential, progressively developmental and provide learners with opportunities to reflect on their experiences

Schön’s (1983) reflective practitioner

Schön (1983) viewed self-reflection as a vehicle for learning and improvement. He distinguished between reflection in action and reflection on action. He observed that professionals reflect in action by applying their knowledge within any given situation and then adjusting their practice accordingly. Practitioners use hindsight to reflect on action, thinking through how they could improve future practice. These processes enable practitioners to master increasingly complex, uncertain and challenging situations

Knowles’ (1978) adult learning theory

Knowles’ (1978) adult learning theory takes account of the vast amount of practical experience which adult learners possess. Self-concept, the role of experience, readiness to learn, orientation for learning, internal motivation and understanding why knowledge is required are important concepts in adult education. Developing the idea of andragogy — the art and science of helping adults to learn — adult learning theory highlights the importance of creating a learning environment which enables adults to feel accepted, respected and supported. A spirit of mutuality and trust between students and facilitators as joint enquirers is deemed helpful for adult learners

Humanistic/person-centred counselling approaches, including microskills training

Person-centred counselling and interviewing draw on ideas from humanistic psychology which proposes that human beings have the potential to overcome distress and work towards self-actualisation within the context of a facilitative helping relationship. Carl Rogers (1951, 1961) introduced core conditions of helping relationships which included the demonstration of congruence, empathy and positive regard

Specific models which derive from person-centred approaches include the following:

• The microskills approach (Ivey and Authier, 1978) [31, 32]

• The human relations training model Carkhuff and Truax (1965) [38] and Carkhuff (1969) [39]

• The skilled helper model (Egan, 2021) [40]

Communication theory

Communication theory, influenced by systems thinking, looks at how information is exchanged, including how messages are conveyed, received and acted upon

Task-centred and behavioural approaches

Task-centred and behavioural approaches to skills acquisition provide systematic opportunities for the development of basic skills including students interviewing each other or service-user educators within workshops and skills labs [41]

Psychosocial approaches

Influenced by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, psychosocial approaches consider how concepts such as internal mental processes (the ‘psyche’), group dynamics and ‘use of self’ impact on communication

Agazarian’s (1997) system-centred therapy for groups

According to Koprowska (2003, 296) [42], system-centred therapy ‘deliberately structures group norms in order to reduce restraining forces and increase driving forces’. The part played by ‘predictable defences’ needs to be ‘undone’ so that new information can be integrated in ways that enable students to ‘move away from personal preoccupations toward a process of professional discovery’ (Koprowska, 2003, 306) [42]

Miller and Stiver’s (1997) ‘relational/cultural theory’

Based on the work of Jean Baker Miller and Janet Stiver, ‘relational/cultural theory’ suggests that ‘how students are taught will influence what they learn, and that this in turn will influence how they use this knowledge and understanding in practice’ [9]. In the context of social work education, the ideas of mutual engagement, mutual empathy and mutual empowerment are just as important in the student–teacher relationship as they are in the client-worker relationship

Jessup and Rogerson’s (1999) postmodern and post-structural approach

Described as a discourse and practice, the postmodern and post-structural approach argues that interpersonal communication in social work must integrate personal and socio-structural domains. The teaching and practising of interpersonal communication skills are located within a political context