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Table 4 Characteristics of studies that were not included in the meta-analysis

From: Low birth weight as a predictor of adverse health outcomes during adulthood in twins: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Author, year

Study design

Confounders

Outcome

Result

Antoniades 2003 [17]

Cohort study

Height, age

Bone

Mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) at the lumbar spine,

Hip and forearm

No association was found with LBW

Bergvall 2007 [31]

Cohort study

Zygosity and socioeconomic factors, genetic factors, shared familial environment, BMI

Hypertension

Decreased birth weight was found to be associated with increased risk of hypertension

Cnattingius 2009 [19]

Cohort study

Mother’s short status

Late fetal death rates

The risk of late fetal death is greatly increased in twin fetuses

De Zeeuw 2012 [20]

Cohort study

Mode of delivery, gestational age and zygosity

Educational achievement in primary school

Low birth weight were the most important risk factors for lower educational achievement of twins in primary school

Groen-Blokhuis 2011 [21]

Cohort study

Zygosity

Attention problems

Association of birth weight and attention problems represented a causal relationship

Hestbaek 2003 [22]

Cohort study

Birth factors and anthropometric measures in adolescence

Low back pain

The odds ratio for the lifetime prevalence of low back pain increases from 1.21 (0.94-1.56) for a birth weight of 2000-2500 g to 1.97 (1.35-2.88) for a birth weight of > 3500 g compared to the smallest weight group (< 2000 g) in males, whereas there is a small statistically insignificant, positive association for females.

Hultman 2007 [23]

Cohort study

Fetal growth restriction

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood and early adolescence

Low birth weight was a risk factor for symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the associations did not diminish when we controlled for genetic influence

Williams 1996 [24]

Cohort study

Gestational age

Cerebral palsy

The relative risk was greatest in twins weighing more than 2499 g (4.5). However, after adjusting for reduced birthweight of twins it was the relative risk of twins weighing less than 1400 g that was significantly increased.

Yokoyama 2007 [29]

Cohort study

Gestational age

Motor development in early life

The mean age at achieving milestones was slower in twins with normal birth weight than singletons