Table 1 Characteristics and results of prospective cohort studies

Ke, 2018- Australia [60]

249 healthy Australian children recruited at age 8, 162 followed up at age 15

Mean BMI (SD) in kg/m² at 8 years: 16.7(2.3)

Mean BMI (SD) in kg/m² at 15 years: 22.2 (3.8)

% Male at age 8: 47.4%; at age 15: 54.3%

Age in years: Range: 5.9–8.5; Mean (SD) at 8 years: 7.8 (0.6); at 15 years: 14.9 (0.2)

Serum 25(OH)D: Radioimmunoassay

SBP and DBP: average of 3 readings by an automated BP monitor after a 5 min rest

Age; Date of blood draw; Sum of skinfolds; Socioeconomic status; Body fat

● At 8 years old: No association between 25(OH)D and log SBP (standardized β: 0.004; NS); and log DBP (standardized β: − 0.049; NS)

● At 15 years old: No association between 25(OH)D and log SBP (standardized β: − 0.06; NS); Significant inverse association between 25(OH)D and log DBP (standardized β: − 0.19; p = 0.015)

● No association between 25(OH)D at age 8 and BP at age 15 in boys [SBP (standardized β: − 0.18; p = 0.2); DBP (standardized β: -0.06; NS)] and girls [SBP (standardized β: 0.11; NS); DBP (standardized β: − 0.1; NS)]

Wang, 2019- Boson, USA [99]

775 black and other children from the original Boston Birth Cohort, enrolled from 2005 to 2012 and followed prospectively up to age 18 years at a medical center

Mean BMI (SD) in kg/m²: NR

% Male: 49.8%

Age in years: Median (IQR) for last BP measurement: 10.7 (8.7–12.3)

Plasma 25(OH)D2 and 25(OH)D3: HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry assay

SBP: validated automatic sphygmomanometer, on the right arm, in a sitting position with an appropriately sized cuff

Elevated SBP: BP ≥ 75th p for age, gender, and height

Maternal age; Race; Education; Smoking; Parity; Hypertensive disorder; Diabetes mellitus; Pre-pregnancy obesity; Preterm birth; Birthweight; Season at birth and season at measurement; Breastfeeding; Child’s age at BP measurement; Sex; Current overweight or obesity

None for vitamin D across SBP groups

● No association between low vitamin D status during early childhood and SBP at ages 3 to 5 years. Higher odds of elevated SBP at 6 to 18 years of age with low vitamin D status in early childhood, rendered not significant when adjusted for current weight status: OR for low vitamin D status during early childhood and SBP at 3–5 years [OR 0.96 (95%CI 0.62–1.49); p = 0.859] and 6–18 years [OR 1.56 (95%CI 1.00–2.44); p = 0.051]

● No difference in plasma 25(OH)D in childhood, according to Child Systolic BP p: 83.12 (28.2) nmol/L for < 75 p vs. 78.87 (24.71) nmol/L for ≥ 75 p; p = 0.050

Williams, 2014- Avon, Southwest England [102]

2470 participants of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children at 15-year of follow-up

Mean (SD) BMI: 21.5 (3.7)

% Male: 49.5%

Age in years: Range: 7–12; Mean: 15.4; Mean (SD) at 25(OH)D sampling: 10.0 (0.9)

25(OH)D2 and 25(OH)D3: NR

SBP and DBP: NR

Age; Gender; Socioeconomic status; Childhood BMI; Follow-up BMI; Season-adjusted 25(OH)D3; PTH; Circulating calcium and phosphate

NS association between vitamin D measured during childhood (at mean age 7.4, 9.8, or 11.7 years) and BP at mean age 15.5 years

● Mean difference per doubling of 25(OH)D2

SBP: Mean difference: − 0.12 (95% CI − 0.61, 0.39); p = 0.65

DBP: Mean difference: − 0.10 (95% CI − 0.59, 0.37); p = 0.68

● Mean difference per doubling of 25(OH)D3

SBP: Mean difference: 0.47 (95% CI − 0.45, 1.35); p = 0.29

DBP: Mean difference: − 0.06 (95% CI − 0.87, 0.75); p = 0.88

● Mean difference between 25(OH)D 50–72 nmol/L vs. 25(OH)D ≥ 72 nmol/L

SBP: Mean difference: 0.58 (95% CI − 0.41, 1.57)

DBP: Mean difference: 0.65 (95% CI − 0.18, 1.48)

● Mean difference between 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L vs. 25(OH)D ≥ 72 nmol/L

SBP: Mean difference: − 0.60 (95% CI − 1.69, 0.49)

DBP: Mean difference: 0.17 (95% CI − 0.75, 1.08)