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Table 1 Characteristics and quality ratings of the studies in the effectiveness review (n = 47)

From: Environmental interventions to reduce fear of crime: systematic review of effectiveness

First author [reference(s)]

Design

Sample size (I/C)

Follow-up

Quality rating

Location

Intervention content

Category 1. Home security improvements

Allatt [14, 15]

CBA(S)

338/322

1 year

A

Newcastle and Gateshead, UK

Improvement of residential security on deprived housing estates

Brownsell [16]

CBA(S)

24/28

5 years

A

UK, location NR

Telecare package in sheltered housing for older people

Halpern [17]

UBA(S)

55

3 yearsa

C

UK, location NR

Comprehensive renovation program on housing estate, with emphasis on security

Matthews [18]

UBA(D)

636

1 yeara

C

Leicester, UK

Multi-component crime reduction strategy, including residential security and social components

Matthews [19]

UBA(D)

907

1 yeara

C

Leicester, UK

Similar to Matthews [18]

Category 2. Installation or improvement of street lighting

Atkins [20]

CBA(S)

248/131

2 months

A

Wandsworth, London, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Bainbridge [21]

UBA(S)

468

1 year

B

Birmingham, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Barr [22]

UBA(S)

229

2 months

C

Manchester, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Burden [23]

UBA(D)

NR

NR

C

Leeds, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Davidson [24]

UBA(S)

251

6 weeks

C

Hull, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Herbert [25, 26]

UBA(S)

154

2 months

C

Cardiff, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Knight [27]

UBA(S)

125

3 weeks

C

St Helens, UK

Change of street lighting from yellow to white lights

Painter [28, 29]

UBA(D)

207

6 weeks

C

North London, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Painter [29, 30]

UBA(D)

143

6 weeks

C

East London, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Painter [29, 31]

UBA(S)

263

13 months

B

West London, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Painter [32]

CBA(S)

431/443

1 year

A

Dudley, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Painter [33]

CBA(S)

317/88

11 months

A

Stoke-on-Trent, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Painter [34]

CBA(S)

140/167

1 year

A

Dudley, UK

Same intervention as Painter [32]

Payne [35]

UBA(S)

228

<1 year

C

Rugby, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Vamplew [36]

UBA(D)

820

<1 month

C

Middlesbrough, UK

Improvement of street lighting

Vrij [37]

UBA(D)

160

1 week

C

Enkhuizen, the Netherlands

Brighter bulbs and installation of one extra lamppost

Category 3. Installation of closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems

Brown [38]

UBA(D)

699

1 year

C

Birmingham, UK

Installation of 12 CCTV cameras in city centre

Ditton [39]

CBA(D+)

1,018 total

15 months

C

Glasgow, UK

Installation of 32 CCTV cameras in city centre

Gill [40, 41]

CBA(D−)

4,427/2,099

1 year

C

Several locations, England

Installation of nine different CCTV systems, four in town/city centers, five in residential areas

Musheno [42]

CBA(D+)

32/29

3 months

C

New York City, NY, USA

CCTV in public housing project with transmission to residents’ television sets

Squires [43]

UBA(D)

750

8 months

C

East London, UK

Installation of CCTV in town centre

Squires [44]

UBA(D)

243

1 year

C

Brighton, UK

Installation of 10 CCTV cameras in housing estate

Category 4. Multi-component interventions for crime prevention

Arthur Young & Company [45, 46]

CBA(S)

920/150

2 yearsa

A

Chicago, IL, USA

Multi-component intervention in a housing estate (locks, security personnel, entry systems, fencing, various social components)

Baker [47]

CBA(D−)

124/337

6 months

C

Pennsylvania, PA, USA

Multi-component intervention in a park (CCTV, fencing, lighting, locks, signage, cleaning, community policing, Neighborhood Watch)

Donnelly [48, 49]

UBA(D)

191

5 years

C

Dayton, OH, USA

Multi-component community-based program (road closures, various social components, community-oriented policing)

Felson [50]

UBA(D)

3,581

3 years

C

New York City, NY, USA

Extensive physical redesign of bus station using CPTED principles (redesign, renovation, cleaning, lighting, information, social and policing interventions for homeless people)

Fowler [5154]

CBA(D+)

93/798

3 years

C

Hartford, CT, USA

Multi-component community-based program (road closures, landscaping, community-oriented policing, resident organizations)

Kaplan [55]

CBA(D−)

2,772 total

6 months

C

Broward County, FL, USA

Extensive renovation work in schools using CPTED principles (renovation, reconstruction, fencing, alarms)

Kaplan [5658]

UBA(D)

311

3 yearsa

C

Portland, OR, USA

Multi-component community-based intervention with emphasis on commercial premises (security advice, lighting, traffic calming, landscaping, cleaning, bus shelters, business organization, social programs)

Mazerolle [59, 60]

RCT

Approx. 199/199

3 months

B

Oakland, CA, USA

Police-led intervention with focus on reducing disorder in the physical environment by enforcing building/housing codes

Webb [61]

CBA(D+)

Approx. 560/560

Unclear

C

London, UK

Multi-component crime prevention project on the London Underground (CCTV, passenger alarms, manned kiosks, mirrors, lighting, policing patrols)

Category 5. Housing improvement and relocation

Barnes [62]

CBA(S)

199/85

6 months

C

West London, UK

Refurbishing housing association housing and relocating tenants to new, improved housing

Blackman [63, 64]

UBA(S)

415

5 yearsa

C

Newcastle, UK

Housing renewal program (environmental improvements, refurbishment, demolition, security, road safety improvements)

Critchley [65]

CBA(S)

200/207

1 year

A

Liverpool, UK

Housing redevelopment with main focus on energy efficiency, security improvements (entry systems, CCTV, lighting)

Foster [66]

CBA(D−)

820/862

3 yearsa

C

East London and Hull, UK

Tenant management program including environmental improvements (security, maintenance, landscaping, entry systems)

GoWell [67, 68]

CBA(D+)

6,008 total

2 yearsa

C

Glasgow, UK

Several types of regeneration and housing program, ranging from extensive rebuilding to minor renovation works

Nair [69]

UBA(S)

69

3 months

C

Glasgow, UK

Re-lighting, landscaping, housing renovation, including security improvements

Petticrew [70, 71]

CBA(S)

334/389

2 years

A

Several locations, Scotland

Relocation of social housing tenants to new housing

Category 6. Area-based regeneration initiatives

Beatty [7274]

CBA(S)

19,633/4,000

6 yearsa

A

Several locations, England

Broad multi-component regeneration program, New Deal for Communities

Rhodes [75]

UBA(S)

3,459

5 yearsa

C

Several locations, England

Broad multi-component regeneration program, Single Regeneration Budget

Category 7. Small-scale environmental improvements in public areas

Cohen [76]

CBA(D+)

1,535 total

3 to 14 months

C

South California, CA, USA

Improvements to public parks

Palmer [77]

UBA(D)

290

Unclear

C

Durham, UK

Bus station repainted and graffiti removed by offenders serving Community Service Orders